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Chart and Diagram Slides for PowerPoint - Beautifully designed chart and diagram s for PowerPoint with visually stunning graphics and animation effects. If buyers have strong bargaining power, they can demand lower prices.
If suppliers have strong bargaining power, they can demand higher prices for their goods and services. The degree of rivalry between competitors is high in industries with many equally sized competitors or little differentiation between products.
A threat is an indication of something impending that may negatively impact an organization. Threats are considered to occur in situations in which the organization has little control, such as a threat from a competitor or worldwide economic conditions. A weakness is a fault or defect that already exists within the organization.
Typically, an organization can take action to eliminate its weaknesses. A strength is an existing strong attribute or inherent asset of the organization. An organization builds on its strengths. An opportunity presents a good chance for an organization to make an improvement of some type. If an organization cannot identify any opportunities, it may mean that the industry in which it competes is dying or that its employees lack imagination and creativity.
Either way, the organization is in serious trouble. If an organization cannot identify any threats, it lacks understanding of the industry and environment in which it competes.
It is likely to be hit with an unexpected threat that has serious negative consequences for the organization. An objective is a statement of a compelling business need that an organization must meet to achieve its vision and mission. A goal is a specific result that must be achieved to reach an objective. Several goals may be associated with a single objective. To achieve that objective, it has defined specific goals to achieve industry-leading numbers in three areas: sales growth, earnings-per-share growth, and free cash flow productivity.
There is a high risk that the attempt to reach such a goal may expend. Before setting a BHAG, senior management must be sure that the potential payoff is worth the attempt. They must be prepared to support the organization in meeting the BHAG. There also must be some consideration of how to minimize the negative impact if it becomes clear that the BHAG cannot be met.
A strategy describes specific actions an organization will take to achieve its vision, mission, objectives, and goals. The matrix suggests that an organization can grow by marketing new or existing products in new or existing markets. Utilities Utilities are generally written and supplied by software developers of hardware manufacturers. These utilities are used by the users in their day-to-day operation.
Some of the commonly used utilities are text editors and linkers debuggers. They are called readymade application software, or simply packages. Application software written for specific users is called tailor made application software. These application softwares satisfy the needs of a specific user only for example, payroll programme written for university and inventory programme written for a factory.
Programming Languages The language of a computer, or method of representing information in a computer, is a collection of electrical pulses. A computer recognises only the presence and absence of a pulse and this leads to binary representation. For example, 0 represents the absence of a pulse and 1 its presence. A sequence of binary numbers has some specific meaning for the computer.
Broadly, there are only two classes of programming languages. Low level languages b. High Level Languages Any language used is called low level language or high level language, depending on how close they are to the language understood and used by the computer 0s and 1s — low or to the language understood and used by people English like language.
Machine level Language Low level Language Machine level language or low level language is a programming language in which we write the instruction by using only 0s and 1s.
Machine level languages are machine dependent. The machine language instructions are represented as a string of binary codes. The binary code of an instruction is known as machine code or machine language.
Assembly Level language To overcome the problem of the machine level language, assembly level language was developed. In this language, some codes, known as Mnemonic codes, were developed. Now these codes represent strings of 0 and 1 in the form of words.
For instance, ADD, SUB, for adding and subtracting and memory addresses were represented in the form of variable means. This made programming more easier than machine level languages. But still these codes were different for different machine. Assembly level language is also known as symbolic language. High level language High level language has English like sentences. These English like sentences are easily understood by users or programmers.
That is why it is the most popular language. This is a language in which the instructions are given to the computer by using certain letters of the English alphabet, words and conventional mathematical notations. By using high level language, a programmer saves himself from a great deal of time and efforts.
However, a computer cannot understand high level language directly So there is need for conversion from high level language to machine level language.
The content of a database is obtained by combining data from all the different sources in an organisation so that the data is available to all users and redundant data can be eliminated or at least minimised. A computer database gives us some electronic filing system which has a large number of ways of cross-referencing and this allows the user many different ways in which to reorganise and retrieve data.
A database can handle business inventory, accounting and filing and use the information in its files to prepare summaries, estimates and other reports. There can be a database which stores newspaper articles, magazines, books and comics. There is already a well-defined market for specific information for highly selected group of users on almost all subjects.
The management of database system is done by means of a general purpose software package, called a database management system. The database management system is the major software component of a database system. These may be either standardised reports or specifically generated according to specific user definition. All organisations need to collect, store and process data for their functions. The database is used to store and process data for providing useful information to the organisation.
The database must have the following basic objectives: 1. Centrally Controlled: A database must be centrally controlled. It is possible that the data of a particular system may be spread in different branches of a company, but it must be controlled from one central location. Logically Organised: The database must be organised in a logical manner. For example. Shared: In a multi-user application, the database is designed such that the data can be shared or accessed by different users.
The sharing of data is possible, only if the database is integrated. Data independence: The most important objective of a database is the provision of data independence. Most of the present day applications are generally data-dependent.
If the storage structure of the data files is to be changed, the programme should also be modified accordingly. Instead, they form their requests in database query language. Among these applications are computer aided design systems, knowledge base and modeling systems. Database Programmes: the set of instructions given to the database system to perform the arithmetic and logical operations on data are also the important components of a DBMS. These sets of instructions are called programmes.
These instructions are given to interact among the different elements of the database. These instructions generally comprise a set of rules and relationships. It is required to meet the objectives of the database which we discussed in the previous section. Despite these disadvantages, today, a DBMS has become an essential system of data Management for all organisations. A field is the lowest level logical unit in the data hierarchy.
For example, a single character, viz; A has little meaning out of context. But when characters are combined to form a name e.
The term file is also used to refer to a named area on a secondary storage device that contains a programme, textual material or even an image. All the records about authors for the publisher comprise a file.
For example, if records are kept in a traditional file environment and an author moves, his or her address must be changed in all files that maintain the address data. In a database, data about addresses of authors are stored only once and are made available to all departments. Therefore, only one update is needed. The phrase data element, or elementary item, is also sometimes used. Although the data item may be treated as a molecule of the database, data items are grouped together to form aggregates described by various names.
For example, the data recurred is used to refer to a group of data items and a programme usually reads or writes the whole records. The data items could occasionally be further broken down into what may be called an automatic level for processing purpose.
The first 2 digits of these number reflect the year of admission, the next 2 digits refer to the Regional Centre where the student has first opted for admission, the next 4 digits are simple sequence numbers and the last digits are check digits. For the purpose of processing, it may sometimes be necessary to split the data item.
All such items about which relevant information is stored in the database are called Entities. The qualities of the entity which we store as information are known as attributes.
An attribute may be expressed as a number or as a text. It may even be a scanned picture, a sound sequence, a moving picture, which is now possible in some visual and multi-media database.
The principal components of a DBMS are a data description module and a data manipulation module. The data description module of the DBMS analyses the data requirements of applications programmes and transfers control to the data manipulation module, which retrieves the data from the database. Most people are able to use a database management Notes without knowing its underlying structure. This ease, of course, is made possible by the four components of DBMS software: data definition language, data manipulation language, query language and report generator.
Data Definition Language Database management systems provide a facility, known as the data definition language DDL , which can be used to define the conceptual schema and also give some details about how to implement this schema in physical devices used to store the data. This definition includes all the entity sets and their associated attributes, as well as the relationships among the entity sets. The definition also includes any constraints that have to be considered, including the constraints on the value that can be assigned to given attribute and the constraints on the values assigned to different attributes in the same, or different, records.
Data Manipulation Language DHL This is a language that enables users to access or manipulate as organised appropriate data model. Data manipulation involves retrieval of data from the database, insertion of new data into the database and deletion or modification of existing data. The first of these data manipulation operations is called a query. Query Language This language enables users to ask specific questions to the database.
A marketing vice president trying to decide which items to sell at a discount, for example, might ask a database programme to list all inventory items with a profit margin greater than 30 percent. The most popular query language is structured Query language SQL. Report Generator The report generator helps the user to design and generate reports and graphs in printed form. Report headings, column headings, page numbers and totals are just some of the features that are easy to include with the report generator.
File Organisation: Based on the differences in the speed and method of access, there are three major methods of storing files of data in secondary storage: 1. Sequential file organisation, in which records are organised in a particular order. Direct file organisation, in which records are not organized in any particuler order. Indexed Organisation, in which records are organised sequentially, but indexes built into the file allow a record to be accessed, either directly or sequentially. Sequential file processing means records are in order according to a primary key field.
If a particular record in a sequential file is wanted, all the prior records in the file must be read before reaching the desired records. Tape storage is limited to sequential file organisation. Operationally, the magnetic tape is same as the one in home and automobile tape decks. If the key field in an employee record is employee name, the records are ordered and processed alphabetically by last name. A sequential file is processed from start to finish.
The entire file must be processed, even if only one record is to be updated. Sequential Access File Direct File Organisation Direct access, allows the computer to go directly to the desired record by using a primary key. The computer does not have to read all preceding records in the file as it does if the records are arranged sequentially. Direct access requires disk storage. In fact, a disk device is called a direct-access storage device DSAD because the computer can go directly to the desired record on the disk.
An added advantage of direct access organisation is the ability to read and return a record to its same place on the disk. This is called updating in place. Direct Access File Indexed File Organisation It is useful in applications where a file needs to be in sequential order but, in addition, access to individual records is needed. In indexed file organisation, records are stored in the file in sequential order, but the file also contains an index.
The index is like a directory, with the keys to all records listed in order ascending or descending. To access a record directly, the record key primary key must be located in the index. The address associated with the key is then used to locate the record on the disk. To access the entire file of records sequentially, begin with the first record and proceed through the rest of records.
Although the hierarchical structure is a natural way to model truly, it has certain drawbacks. The symmetry is generally missing in a hierarchical approach and anomalies arise in retrieval of records, due to the complicated programming concepts used in an hierarchical database.
Codd, in In the relational data structure, data is viewed as organised in table as shown in the table on page As per the systems design, there can be many Tables in a database. A two dimensional Table is the most natural way to represent data for a general user. Each Table closely resembles a conventional sequential file with rows representing records of the data, and columns representing field of the records.
Actually, each Table is a special case of construct known as a relation. A database constructed using relations is referred to as a relational database. The relational approach is based on the mathematical theory of relation and therefore, the results of relational mathematics can be directly applied to such a database. Thus, a given entity can have any number of superiors, as well as any number of subordinates.
There can be many-to-many relationships among entities Complex network besides one-to- many simple Network. The relationships between entities are generally represented by using pointers, called the Link Nodes.
The complex network is better than the simple network because the former can be broken into many simple networks, but it is difficult to convert data representation from simple to complex network. The general form of network structure is shown below: Network Structure 1. If more computing power is needed, one way to get it is to buy a larger computer system. But buying a larger computer system is not possible for many small businesses or companies. Another problem arises for those who are geographically dispersed.
They may need to send messages to, receive messages from, or share problems at many different locations. One solution to this problem is to keep separate data files at each location.
But this approach is very costly and potentially a dangerous solution. The solution to both issues, the need Notes for more power and the ability to receive messages and share data are found in data communication technology. Even for a simple important exercise of printing any information from a computer by an attached printer to a computer, there is a requirement for error free data transmission from the computer to the printer.
The whole concept of data communication is based upon principles of sending data, checking and confirming its receipt and following error correction technique, to ensure accurate data transmission.
Communication Process 1. They were never planned to send Data. So to send data through telephone lines, you have to convert the data into the format which can be read by telephone lines.
These are called analog signals. For data communication between computers to take place over a telephone line, the digital pulses of the data to be transmitted must be converted to an analog signal before these are transmitted.
After its journey over the telephone lines, the analog signal must be re-converted to digital pulses so that it can be used by the receiving computer.
The process of converting digital pulses to an analog signal is called modulation. And the process of re-converting an analog signal to digital pulses is called demodulation.
The device that accomplishes modulation-demodulation process is called a modem. A device using the simplex mode of transmission can either send or receive data, but it cannot do both. Simplex mode circuit is seldom used because a return path is generally needed to send acknowledgement, control or error signals. Full-duplex Mode: This mode allows a device to receive and send data simultaneously.
A full duplex mode is faster since it avoids the delay that occurs in a half-duplex circuit each time the direction of transmission is changed.
An example is a citizens band radio, where the user must either talk or listen, but cannot do both at the same time. Transmission Modes 1. Twisted pair Cable This type of cable is made of pairs of thin strands of insulated wire twisted together.
Twisted pair is the least expensive type of networking cable and has been in use the longest. In fact, it is the same type of cabling used inside most homes for telephone communications. Twisted pair cabling can be used with both analog and digital data and is commonly used for LANs. Twisted pair cable is rated by category, which indicates the type of data, speed, distance and other factors that the cable supports. Category 3 twisted pair cabling is a regular telephone cable with higher speed and quality cabling.
For instance, Category 5 and Category 6 are Frequently used for home or business networks. The pairs of wires in twisted pair wires are twisted together to reduce interference and improve performance.
To further improve performance, it can be shielded with a metal lining. Twisted pair Cable Coaxial Cable This medium also known as coax , pioneered by the cable television industry, was originally developed to carry a large number of high speed video transmissions. A coaxial cable consists of a relatively thick centre wire surrounded by insulation and then a shield of braided wire the shield blocks electromagnetic signals from entering the cable.
Coaxial cable are available in both baseband and broadband versions. Both type of coaxial cabless are used today in Notes computer networks. Coax is also used for short run telephone transmissions outside the home and for cable television delivery. Although more expensive than twisted pair cabling, it is much less susceptible to interference and can carry more data more quickly. Coaxial Cable Fiber Optic Cable This is the newest and fastest of the three types of wired transmission media.
It uses clear glass or plastic fibre strands, each about the thickness of a human hair, to transfer digital data represented by light pulses. The light pulses are sent through the cable by a laser device at speeds of billions of bits per second. Each strand has the capacity to carry data for several television stations, or thousands of voice conversations. Fiber Optic connectors are less standardised than connectors for other types of wired media, so it is important to use cables with the connectors that match the hardware with which the cable will be used.
Fiber Optic cable is commonly used for the high speed backbone lines of a network, such as to connect networks housed in separate buildings or for the Internet infrastructure.
It is used for telephone backbone lines and is increasingly being installed by telephone companies all the way to the home or business to provide super-fast connections directly to the end user.
The biggest advantage of fiber optic cabling is speed. The main disadvantage of fiber optic cabling is the initial expense of both the cable and the installation. Fiber Optic Cable b Wireless Network The most common types of wireless transmission media used in computer and communications networks are microwave, satellite and infrared.
Sometimes, Notes a single piece of hardware functions as both the receiver and transmitter; if so, it is commonly called a transmitter or transceiver. Microwave and Satellite Transmission Microwaves are high frequency radio signals. Microwave signals can be sent or received using microwave stations or satellites.
Both methods can send large quantities of data speeds over long distances.
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